Calligraphy

Calligraphy is said to be the the art of beautiful writing.

East Asian calligraphy:
The art of calligraphy is widely practiced and revered in the East Asian civilizations that use or used Chinese characters. These include China, Japan, Korea, and to a lesser extent, Vietnam. In addition to being an artform in its own right, calligraphy has also influenced ink and wash painting, which is accomplished using similar tools and techniques. The East Asian tradition of calligraphy originated and developed from China, specifically the ink and brush writing of Chinese characters. There is a general standardization of the various styles of calligraphy in the East Asian tradition. Calligraphy has also led to the development of many other forms of art in East Asia, including seal carving, ornate paperweights, and inkstones. Chinese calligraphy written by Song Dynasty (A.D. 1051-1108) poet Mi Fu. For centuries, the Chinese literati were expected to master the art of calligraphy. Asian calligraphy typically uses ink brushes to write Chinese characters. Calligraphy is considered an important art in East Asia and the most refined form of East Asian painting. Calligraphy has also influenced ink and wash painting, which is accomplished using similar tools and techniques. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, including sumi-e, a style of Chinese, Korean, and Japanese painting based entirely on calligraphy.

Ancient China Calligraphy:
In ancient China, the oldest Chinese character we still have are Jiaguwén characters carved on ox scapula and tortoise plastrons, while brush written ones were destroy by times. With the development of Jinwén (Bronzeware script) and Dàzhuàn (Large Seal Script) we continue to see "cursive" signs. Moreover, it is evident that each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters. From the seal script was derived the clerical script; and from the clerical script were derived both the regular script and the cursive scripts. Characters are often written in ancient variations or simplifications that deviate from the modern standards used in Chinese, Japanese, or Korean. Modern variations or simplifications of characters, akin to Chinese Simplified characters or Japanese shinjitai, are occasionally used, especially since some simplified forms derive from cursive script shapes in the first place. The Japanese syllabaries of katakana and hiragana are used in calligraphy; katakana were derived from regular script shapes and hiragana from characters in the cursive script. In Korea, the post-Korean War period saw the increased use of hangul, the Korean alphabet, in calligraphy.

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Imperial China Calligraphy:
In Imperial China, the graphs on old steles some dating from 200 BC, and in Xiaozhuan style are still accessible to us. Despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, few papers survive from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles. Then, the Lìshu style (clerical script) which is more regularized, and in some ways similar to modern text was then developed. Kaishu style (regular script) still in use today is even more regularized. It can be seen that the Kaishu shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar as that at the end of Imperial China. But tinies slides have be made, in example in the shape of ? which is not absolutly the same in the Kangxi dictionary of 1716, than in modern books.

Seal Script in Calligraphy:
The Seal Script is the formal script of the Qin system of writing, the informal script of which was precursor to the Clerical Script. Seal script is the oldest style that continues to be widely practiced. Today, this ancient style of Chinese writing is used predominantly in seals, hence the English name. Although seals (name chops), which make a signature-like impression, are carved in wood, jade and other materials, the script itself was originally written with brush and ink on paper, just like all other scripts. Most people today cannot read the seal script, so it is generally not used outside the fields of calligraphy and carved seals. However, because seals act like legal signatures in Chinese culture, Korean culture, and Japanese culture, and because vermillion seal impressions are a fundamental part of the presentation of works of art such as calligraphy and painting, seals and therefore seal script remain ubiquitous.

Clerical Script in Calligraphy:
The Clerical Script developed from the Seal Script. In general, characters are often "flat" in appearance, being wider than they are tall. The strokes may appear curved and with variations in width. Most noticeable is the dramatically flared tail of one dominant horizontal or downward-diagonal stroke, especially that to the lower right. This characteristic stroke has famously been called 'silkworm head and wild goose tail. The archaic Clerical Script of the Chinese Warring States period to Qin Dynasty and early Han Dynasty can often be difficult to read for a modern East Asian person, but the mature Clerical Script of the middle to late Han dynasty is generally legible. Modern works in the Clerical Script tend to use the mature, late Hàn style, and may also use modernized character structures, resulting in a form as transparent and legible as Regular (or standard) Script. The Clerical Script remains common as a typeface used for decorative purposes (for example, in displays), but it is not commonly written.

Semi-cursive Script in Calligraphy:
The Semi-cursive Script approximates normal handwriting in which strokes and, more rarely, characters are allowed to run into one another. In writing in the Semi-cursive Script, the brush leaves the paper less often than in the Regular Script. Characters appear less angular and rounder. In general, an educated person in China or Japan can read characters written in the Semi-cursive Script with relative ease, but may have occasional difficulties with certain idiosyncratic shapes.

Cursive Script in Calligraphy:
The Cursive Script is a fully cursive script, and a person who can read the Semi-cursive Script cannot be expected to read the Grass Script without training. Entire characters may be written without lifting the brush from the paper at all, and characters frequently flow into one another. Strokes are modified or eliminated completely to facilitate smooth writing and to create a beautiful, abstract appearance. Characters are highly rounded and soft in appearance, with a noticeable lack of angular lines. The Cursive Script is the source of Japanese hiragana, as well as many modern simplified forms in Simplified Chinese characters and Japanese shinjitai.

Regular Script in Calligraphy:
The Regular Script is one of the last major Calligraphy styles to develop, emerging between the Chinese Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period, gaining dominance in the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and maturing in the Tang Dynasty. It emerged from a neatly written, early period semi-cursive form of clerical script. As the name suggests, the Regular Script is "regular", with each of the strokes placed slowly and carefully, the brush lifted from the paper and all the strokes distinct from each other. The Regular Script is also the most easily and widely recognized style, as it is the script to which children in East Asian countries and beginners of East Asian languages are first introduced. For learners of calligraphy, the Regular Script is usually studied first to give students a feel for correct placement and balance, as well as to provide a proper base for the other, more flowing styles.

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Edomoji in Calligraphy:
There is also a large family of native Japanese calligraphic styles known as edomoji, characters created in the Edo period of Japanese history, such as sumomoji (sumo letters) used to write sumo wrestling posters, kanteiryu, used for kabuki, higemoji, and so on. These styles are typically not taught in Japanese calligraphy schools. Chinese and Korean people can read edomoji, but the style has a distinct Japanese feel to it. It is therefore commonly used in China and Korea to advertise Japanese restaurants.

Munjado in Calligraphy:
Munjado is a Korean decorative style of rendering Chinese characters in which brush strokes are replaced with representational paintings that provide commentary on the meaning. The characters thus rendered are traditionally those for the eight Confucian virtues of humility, honor, duty, propriety, trust, loyalty, brotherly love, and filial piety.

Kao in Calligraphy:
The kao is a stylized calligraphic signature. Many Japanese emperors, shogun, and even modern politicians develop their own kao.

Tools in Calligraphy:
The paper, ink, brush, and inkstone are essential implements of East Asian calligraphy: they are known together as the Four Treasures of the Study in China, and as the Four Friends of the Study in Korea. In addition to these four tools, desk pads and paperweights are also used by calligraphers.

Paper in Calligraphy:
Special types of paper are used in East Asian calligraphy. In China, Xuanzhi, traditionally made in Anhui province, is the preferred type of paper. It is made from the Tartar wingceltis (Pteroceltis tartarianovii), as well as other materials including rice, the paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera), bamboo, hemp, etc. In Japan, Washi is made from the kozo (paper mulberry), ganpi (Wikstroemia sikokiana), and mitsumata (Edgeworthia papyrifera), as well as other materials like bamboo, hemp, rice, and wheat. Sometimes the brush is used to put ink on a pen.

Ink in Calligraphy:
The ink is made from lampblack (soot) and binders, and comes in sticks which must be rubbed with water on an inkstone until the right consistency is achieved. Much cheaper, pre-mixed bottled inks are now available, but these are used primarily for practice as stick inks are considered higher quality and chemical inks are more prone to bleeding over time, making them less suitable for use in hanging scrolls. Learning to rub the ink is an essential part of calligraphy study. Traditionally, East Asian calligraphy is written only in black ink, but modern calligraphers sometimes use other colours. Calligraphy teachers use a bright orange or red ink with which they write practice characters for students and correct students' work.

Brush in Calligraphy:
The brush is the traditional writing implement in East Asian calligraphy. The body of the brush can be made from either bamboo, or rarer materials like red sandalwood, glass, ivory, silver, and gold. The head of the brush can be made from the hair (or feather) of a wide variety of animals, including the wolf, rabbit, deer, chicken, duck, goat, pig, tiger, etc. There is also a tradition in both China and Japan of making a brush using the hair of a newborn, as a once-in-a-lifetime souvenir for the child. This practice is associated with the legend of an ancient Chinese scholar who scored first in the Imperial examinations by using such a personalized brush. Today, calligraphy may also be done using a pen, but pen calligraphy does not enjoy the same prestige as traditional brush calligraphy.

Inkstone in Calligraphy:
A stone or ceramic inkstone is used to rub the solid ink stick into liquid ink and to contain the ink once it is liquid. Cheaper inkstones are made of plastic. Inkstones are often carved, so they are collectible works of art on their own.

Paperweight in Calligraphy:
Paperweights are used to weigh down paper. Paperweights come in several types: some are oblong wooden blocks carved with calligraphic or pictorial designs; others are essentially small sculptures of people or animals. Like inkstones, paperweights are collectible works of art on their own right.

Desk pad in Calligraphy:
The desk pad is a pad made of felt. Some are printed with grids on both sides, so that when it is placed under the translucent paper, it can be used as a guide to ensure correct placement and size of characters. These printed pads are used only by students. Both desk pads and the printed grids come in a variety of sizes.

Seal in Calligraphy:
Works of calligraphy are usually completed by the artist putting his or her seal at the very end, in red ink. The seal serves the function of a signature.

Study in Calligraphy:
The Chinese method of holding the brushHow the brush is held depends on which calligraphic genre is practiced. For Chinese calligraphy, the method of holding the brush is more special; the brush is held vertically straight gripped between the thumb and middle finger. The index finger lightly touches the upper part of the shaft of the brush (stabilizing it) while the ring and little fingers tuck under the bottom of the shaft. The palm is hollow and you should be able to hold an egg in there. This method, although difficult to hold correctly for the beginner, allows greater freedom of movement, control and execution of strokes. For Japanese calligraphy, the brush is held in the right hand between the thumb and the index finger, very much like a Western pen. A paperweight is placed at the top of all but the largest pages to prevent slipping; for smaller pieces the left hand is also placed at the bottom of the page for support. In China, there are many people who practice calligraphy in public places such as parks and sidewalks, using water as their ink and the ground as their paper. Very large brushes are required. Although such calligraphic works are temporary (as the water will eventually dry), they serve the dual purpose of both being an informal public display of one's work, and an opportunity to further practice one's calligraphy. In Japan, smaller pieces of Japanese calligraphy are traditionally written seated in the traditional Japanese way (seiza), on the knees with the buttocks resting on the heels. In modern times, however, practitioners frequently practice calligraphy seated on a chair at a table. Larger pieces may be written while standing; in this case the paper is usually placed directly on the floor, but some calligraphers use an easel. Calligraphy takes many years of dedicated practice. Correct stroke order, proper balance and rhythm of characters are essential in calligraphy. Skilled handling of the brush produces a pleasing balance of characters on the paper, thick and thin lines, and heavy and light inking. In most cases, a calligrapher will practice writing the Chinese character yong (?) many, many times in order to perfect the eight basic essential strokes contained within the character. Those who can correctly write the yong character beautifully can potentially write all characters with beauty. Basic calligraphy instruction is part of the regular school curriculum in both China and Japan.

Tibetan calligraphy:
Calligraphy is central in Tibetan culture. The script is derived from Indic scripts. As in China, the nobles of Tibet, such as the High Lamas and inhabitants of the Potala Palace, were usually capable calligraphers. Tibet has been a center of Buddhism for several centuries, and that religion places a great deal of significance on written word. This does not provide for a large body of secular pieces, although they do exist (but are usually related in some way to Tibetan Bhuddism). Almost all high religious writing involved calligraphy, including letters sent by the Dalai Lama and other religious and secular authority. Calligraphy is particularly evident on their prayer wheels, although this calligraphy was forged rather than scribed, much like Arab and Roman calligraphy is often found on buildings. Although originally done with a reed, Tibetan calligraphers now use chisel tipped pens and markers as well.

Japanese calligraphy:
The history of Japanese calligraphy has been heavily influenced by Chinese calligraphy. For a long time, the most esteemed calligrapher in Japan had been Wang Xizhi, a Chinese calligrapher in the 4th century. After the invention of Hiragana and Katakana, the Japanese unique syllabaries, calligraphers developed styles intrinsic to Japan. Before the Nara period:
Written in the 7th centuryThe oldest existing calligraphic text in Japan is the inscription on the halo of the Bhaisajyaguru statue in Horyu-ji Temple. This Chinese text was written in Shakeitai style, famed in Six Dynasties. There are also bibliographic notes for the Lotus Sutra in the same temple. This Hokkegisho is said to have been written by Prince Shotoku in 615, but some scholars criticize this assertion. Hokkegisho was written in Cursive script and is a good example that illustrates the high degree of skill necessary to copy original Chinese texts in the Asuka period. Broken Stone in Uji Bridge and Stone in Nasu County are also typical examples from this time. Both inscriptions were influenced by Northern Wei robust style. In the 7th century, the Tang Dynasty established hegemony in China. Their second Emperor Taizong esteemed Wang Xizhi's calligraphic texts and this popularity influenced Japanese calligraphers. All of the original texts written by Wang Xizhi were lost, and some copies such as Gakkiron written by the Empress Komyo are regarded as important sources to know Wang Xizhi's style. Soukou Shujitsu is the first text which shows the unique Japanese calligraphic style. This Tanka text was written in 749 and shows some differences from Chinese calligraphy. Heian period:
Emperor Kammu moved the capital from Heijo-kyo in Nara, first to Nagaoka-kyo in 784, and then to Heian-kyo, Kyoto in 794. This marks the beginning of the Heian era. Chinese influences in calligraphy were not changed in the early period. For example, under the Emperor Saga's reign, royalty, the aristocracy and even court ladies studied copying Chinese poetry texts in artistic style. Wang Xizhi's influences remained dominant, which are shown in calligraphies written by Kukai or Saicho. Some other Chinese calligraphers, such as Ouyang Xun and Yan Zhenqing were also highly evaluated. At the same time Japan's unique calligraphic style was emerging. Kukai said to Emperor Saga, China is a large country and Japan is relatively small, so I suggest writing in a different way. Cry for noble Saicho, which was written by Emperor Saga for Saicho's death, was one of the examples of such a transformation. Today:
Calligraphy has been adopted as an elementary school subject in the Japanese mandatory education system. In high school, calligraphy is one of the choices among art subjects, with music or painting. Japanese calligraphy also fascinated many Western artists through the centuries - mainly calligraphers themselves, but famous names as well, who studied and practiced calligraphy as a parallel to their own art.

Persian calligraphy:
Persian calligraphy is the calligraphy of Persian writing system. The history of calligraphy in Persia dates back to the pre-Islam era. In Zoroastrianism beautiful and clear writings were always praised. The main types of Persian calligraphy are: Nasta'liq script, Shekasteh-Nasta'liq script and Naghashi-khat.

Islamic calligraphy:
Arabic/Persian calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (arabesque) on the walls and ceilings of mosques as well as on the page. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions in their work. Instead of recalling something related to the reality of the spoken word, calligraphy for Muslims is a visible expression of the highest art of all, the art of the spiritual world. Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. The holy book of Islam, al-Qur'an, has played an important role in the development and evolution of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and complete passages from the Qur'an are still active sources for Islamic calligraphy. There was a strong parallel tradition to that of the Islamic, among Aramaic and Hebrew scholars, seen in such works as the Hebrew illuminated bibles of the 9th and 10th centuries. Islamic Calligraphy was a form of art. Muslims believed that only Allah could create images of people and animals.

Western Calligraphy:
Western calligraphy is recognizable by the use of the Roman alphabet. The alphabet came from the Phoenician, Greek, and Etruscan alphabets. The first Roman alphabet appeared about 600 BC, in Rome. About the first century we can see Roman square capitals carved on stones, Rustic capitals painted on walls, and Roman cursive for daily use. This trend continued into the second and third centuries using the Uncial, however writing withdrew to monasteries and was preserved there during the fourth and fifth centuries, when the Roman Empire finally fell and Europe entered the Dark Ages. At the height of the Roman Empire its power reached as far as Great Britain, when the empire fell, its literary influence remained. The Semi-uncial generated the Irish Semi-uncial, the small Anglo-Saxon. In fact, each region seemed to have develop its own standards following the main monastery of the region (i.e. Merovingian script, Laon script, Luxeuil script, Visigothic script, Beneventan script) which are mostly cursive and hardly readable. The raising of the Carolingian Empire encouraged to set a new standardized script, developed by several famous monasteries around the eighth century, it's finally the script from Saint Martin de Tours which is set as the new Imperial standard, named the Carolingian script (or "the Caroline"). From the Carolingian powerful Empire, this standard also conquered neighbouring kingdoms. About the seventh century, the Caroline evolved into the Gothic script, more cursive and for daily use. After the invention of Gutenberg (1455), the Gutenberg script spread across Europe. In the sixteenth century, the rediscovery of old Carolingian texts encouraged the creation of the Antiqua script (about 1470). The seventeenth century saw the Batarde script from France, and the eighteenth century saw the English script spread across Europe and world by their books. From this, hand written Latin calligraphy hasn't really changed. But we can notice that this evolution was accelerated by the printing press (Times New Roman) in the nineteenth century and by computer fonts in the late twentieth century. Nowadays, computers allow an unskilled user to easily output dozens of scripts, but the result hasn't the same spontaneity that handwritten calligraphy has. Features of Western Calligraphy and modern Western Calligraphy Western calligraphy has some special features, such the illumination of the first letter of each page in medieval times, either by making it bigger, colored, and/or more complex. As Chinese or Arabian calligraphies, western calligraphic script had strict rules and shapes. The quality of a text was according to the regularity of the letters, and the "geometrical" good order of the lines on the pages. Each character had, and still has, a precise stroke order. Current Modern Western calligraphy have evolved into an art where creativity is paramount, allowing use of highly colored and/or cursive characters, while the sentences are commonly curves or crossing each other to add odd visual effects.

Tools in Calligraphy:
The principal tools in Calligraphy are the pen, which may be flat or round-nibbed and the brush. For some decorative purposes in Calligraphy, multi-nibbed pens steel brushes can be used. However, works have also been made with felt-tip and ballpoint pens, although these works do not employ angled lines. Ink for writing is usually water-based and much less viscous than the oil based inks used in printing. High quality paper, which has good consistency of porousness, will enable cleaner lines in Calligraphy, although parchment or vellum is often used, as a knife can be used to erase work on them and a light box is not needed to allow lines to pass through it. In addition, light boxes and templates are often used in order to achieve straight lines in Calligraphy without pencil markings detracting from the work. Lined paper, either for a light box or direct use, is often lined every quarter or half inch, although inch spaces are occasionally used, such as with litterea unciales (hence the name), and college ruled paper acts as a guideline often as well.

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